khasiat telur bebek

Telur merupakan bahan makanan bergizi tinggi karena kandungan proteinnya yang sempurna, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin dan juga mengandung vitamin D. Vitamin D dari telur merupakan penyumbang terpenting bagi tubuh, karena bahan makanan lainnya umumnya mempunyai kandungan vitamin D yang rendah.

Jika dibandingkan dengan daging pemakaian telur dalam menu Indonesia jauh lebih luas. Telur dapat dibuat berbagai jenis makanan, selain disajikan dalam bentuk telur rebus dan telur goreng.

Telur yang dikonsumsi oleh masyarakat Indonesia umumnya berasal dari unggas yang diternakkan. Jenis yang paling banyak dikonsumsi adalah telur ayam, itik (bebek), dan puyuh. Telur penyu, kalkun, angsa, merpati, dan telur unggas peliharaan lainnya belum maksimal dimanfaatkan karena produksinya sedikit. Telur-telur yang lebih kecil seperti telur ikan kadang juga digunakan sebagai campuran dalam hidangan (kaviar). Selain itu dikonsumsi pula juga telur yang berukuran besar seperti telur burung unta (Kasuari) ataupun ukuran sedang, misalnya telur penyu.

Struktur Fisik Telur

Telur mempunyai bentuk fisik bulat sampai lonjong dengan ukuran yang berbeda-beda, tergantung jenis hewan, umur dan sifat genetiknya. Telur tersusun atas tiga bagian yaitu kulit telur, putih telur dan kuning telur.

1. Kulit telur
Mempunyai kulit yang keras yang tersusun dari garam-garam organik. Pada bagian permukaan kulit terdapat pori-pori. Pada telur yang masih baru, pori-pori masih dilapisi kutikula yang terdiri dari 90% protein dan sedikit lemak yang berfungsi mengurangi penguapan air dan mencegah masuknya mikroba.

2. Putih telur
Terdiri dari 40% putih telur encer dan 60% lapisan putih telur kental. Bagian putih telur tidak tercampur dengan kuningnya karena adanya kalaza yang mengikat bagian kuning telur dan membran vitelin yang elastis.

3. Kuning telur
Merupakan bagian yang paling penting dari telur, sebab pada bagian ini terdapat embrio hewan. Pada bagian kuning telur paling banyak terdapat zat-zat gizi, yang sangat penting bagi perkembangan embrio.

Nilai Gizi Telur

Sebagai bahan makanan, telur mempunyai beberapa kelebihan. Telur mengandung semua zat gizi yang diperlukan tubuh,

rasanya enak, mudah dicerna, menimbulkan rasa segar dan kuat pada tubuh, serta dapat diolah menjadi berbagai macam produk makanan. Zat-zat gizi yang ada pada telur sangat mudah dicerna dan dimanfaatkan oleh tubuh.

Telur itik, protein lebih banyak terdapat pada bagian kuning telur, 17 persen, sedangkan bagian putihnya 11 persen. Protein telur terdiri dari ovalbumin (putih telur) dan ovavitelin (kuning telur). Protein telur mengandung semua asam amino esensial yang dibutuhkan tubuh untuk hidup sehat.

Pada suatu penelitian dengan menggunakan tikus percobaan, diketahui bahwa telur mempunyai nilai kegunaan protein (net protein utilization) 100 persen, bandingkan dengan daging ayam (80%) dan susu (75%). Berarti jumlah dan komposisi asam aminonya sangat lengkap dan berimbang, sehingga hampir seluruh bagiannya dapat digunakan untuk pertumbuhan maupun penggantian sel-sel yang rusak.

Hampir semua lemak dalam sebutir telur itik terdapat pada bagian kuningnya, mencapai 35 persen, sedangkan di bagian putihnya tidak ada sama sekali. Lemak pada telur terdiri dari trigliserida (lemak netral), fosfolipida (umumnya berupa lesitin), dan kolesterol.

Fungsi trigliserida dan fosfolipida bagi tubuh adalah sebagai sumber energi, satu gram lemak menghasilkan 9 kilokalori energi. Lemak dalam telur berbentuk emulsi (bergabung dengan air), sehingga menjadi lebih mudah dicerna, baik oleh bayi, anak-anak, maupun golongan lanjut usia.

Teknik Memilih Telur

Ada beberapa teknik dalam memilih telur yang masih baik yaitu:

* Kulit telur masih baik dan tidak retak
* Jika dilihat/diteropong di sinar matahari, telur tampak jernih.
* Telur akan tenggelam jika dimasukkan ke dalam air
* Telur tidak berbunyi jika digoyang-goyang
* Kuning telur masih bulat dan terletak di tengah-tengah
* Telur tidak mengeluarkan bau yang tidak sedap.


Sedangkan telur yang sudah tersimpan lama, ruang udaranya akan semakin besar akibat berkurangnya kadar air dalam telur. Putih telur akan berangsur-angsur mencair yang kemudian diikuti oleh bagian kuning sehingga bagian putih dan bagian merah akan menjadi satu. Selanjutnya telur akan mengeluarkan bau busuk dan ringan.

Menentukan Kualitas Telur

1. Penentuan berdasarkan berat dan ukurannya

* Golongan telur besar sekali, berat telur di atas 60 gram (ekstra large).
* Golongan telur besar, apabila berat telur rata-rata 54 gram atau 50-60 gram.
* Golongan telur medium, berat rata-rata telur 47 gram atau 40-50 gram.
* Golongan telur kecil, berat telur kurang dari 40 gram.


2. Penentuan berdasarkan kebersihannya

* Kelas mutu 1, kulit telur tidak retak atau pecah, penampakannya bersih dan tidak ada kotoran atau noda.
* Kelas mutu 2, yaitu telur yang kulitnya retak dan kenampakannya kotor.
* Kelas mutu 3, yaitu telur yang kulitnya retak, tetapi isinya belum keluar.
* Kelas muti 4, yaitu telur yang kulitnya sudah pecah dan sebagian isinya keluar.


Prinsip Dasar Memasak Telur

* Albumin telur larut dalam air.
* Albumin, globulin dan ovovitellin larut dalam air garam.
* Telur beku dalam panas.
* Telur yang dimasak dalam panas rendah, cenderung mempunyai hasil yang lebih lunak.
* Panas tinggi memperkuat pembekuan protein telur.
* Memasak telur terlalu lama dalam panas rendah menghasilkan telur yang keras dan kering.


Metode Memasak Telur

Pengolahan telur dapat menggunakan panas kering, panas minyak maupun panas basah. Beberapa metode pengolahan yang sering digunakan adalah:

* Metode pengolahan telur utuh: minyak sedikit (shallow fat), minyak banyak (deep frying), rebus setengah matang (soft boiling) rebus matang (boiling for shelling), dipecah dan rebus dalam air yang diberi bumbu cuka dan garam (poaching) dan panggang (baking).
* Pengolahan telur utuh untuk berbagai kegunaan yaitu: sebagai dasar saus, sebagai garnish, sebagai appetizer, macam-macam olahan telur seperti: telur bumbu bali, telur bumbu rujak, kalio telur, telur mata sapi, dadar telur dan sebagainya.
* Pengolahan telur antara putih dan kuning telur dicampur menjadi satu, seperti: omellete, scramble, orak-arik dan sebagainya.


Dasar pemasakan telur sebenarnya sangat sederhana, yang perlu diperhatikan disini adalah menghindari penggunaan suhu terlalu tinggi dan waktu terlalu lama. Hal ini karena protein telur akan terkoagulasi dan menjadi keras.

Beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan dalam mengolah telur antara lain:

* Sebelum diolah, keluarkan telur dari kulkas dan diamkan 30 menit. Jangan langsung merebus telur langsung dari kulkas karena telur biasanya akan retak.
* Jika Anda ingin membuat adonan kue, jangan memecahkan telur langsung ke dalam adonan. Ini untuk menghindari ternyata telur sudah busuk.
* Pada pembuatan poached egg (telur rebus tanpa kulit), gunakan telur baru karena kuning telur akan berada di tengah dan putih telurnya tidak menyebar ketika di rebus.
* Tambahkan dua sendok makan susu tawar cair pada setiap dua butir telur untuk omelette atau orak-arik. Penambahan susu akan menjadikan omelette lebih lembab dan gurih.
* Jika menghendaki telur setengah matang, rebus telur 5-6 menit dihitung dari pertama telur dimasukan di dalam air mendidih.
* Telur matang lembut, yaitu bagian putih sudah mengeras dan bagian kuning berwarna kuning dan masih lembut. Diperlukan waktu memasak 8- menit dihitung dari waktu pertama telur dimasukan ke dalam air mendidih.
* Telur matang keras, bagian putih dan kuningnya sudah mengeras. Diperlukan waktu merebus 10-12 menit dihitung dari mulainya telur dimasukan ke dalam air mendidih.


Metode Memecahkan Kulit Telur

* Pecah setiap telur secara terpisah kedalam sebuah mangkok kecil untuk mengecek apakah telur tersebut masih segar sebelum dimasukan dalam mixer.
* Cara paling mudah ialah dengan memegang terlur tersebut dengan tanan kiri, kemudian ketuk dengan pisau, lalu memasukan ibu jari dalam pecahan tersebut.
* Pecahkan telur, terpisah sebelum digabungkan dengan adonan / campuran lain.
* Jika putih dan kuning telur ingin dipisahkan, balikan kunng telur secara hati-hati dari kulit telur yang tinggal setengah, bergantian dari tangan kiri ke tangan kanan sampai putih telur jatuh semua ke dalam mangkok.


Penyimpanan Telur

Penyimpanan telur pada dasarnya dilakukan untuk mencegah terjadinya penguapan air. Misalnya penyimpanan telur dapat dilakukan dengan jalan merendam telurdalam air kapur (ciran kalsium hidroksida) dan dalam air kaca (cairan natrium silikat). Penyimpanan telur dengan cara ini pori-pori pada kulit telur akan tertutup dan pH larutan yang tinggi akan menghambat pertumbuhan mikroorganisme.

Selain itu penyimpanan telur juga dapat dilakukan melalui pembekuan atau pengeringan. Cara penyimpanan ini lebih mudah dan telur lebih tahan lama asalkan disimpan di tempat penyimpanan yang suhunya selalu di bawah 20 derajat celsius.

Selama proses penyimpanan, telur dapat mengalami beberapa perubahan yang dapat menurunkan mutu dan kesegarannya. Perubahan yang dapat terjadi antara lain:

* Penurunan berat telur, yang disebabkan oleh penguapan air dan sebagian kecil oleh keluarnya CO2, NH3, N2 dan kadang-kadang H2S.
* Bertambahnya diameter kantung udara. Kantung udara terbentuk diantara membran kulit luar dan membran kulit dalam. Dengan demikian selama proses penyimpanan volume ruang udara akan meningkat.
* Pergeseran; Pada telur segar posisi kuning telur ditengah, makin lama penyimpanan posisi kuning telur akan bergeser ke pinggir, bahkan semakin lama telur disimpan kuning telur akan pecah yang disebabkan pecahnya membran vitelin karena penurunan elastisitasnya dan penurunan kekentalan putih telur.
* Penurunan grafik telur; Telur apabila disimpan terlalu lama akan melayang dalam air, hal ini disebabkan karena meningkatnya ukuran kantung udara.
* Perubahan bau, aroma dan rasa. Peningkatan jumlah putih telur, karena pergeseran air dari albumin ke kuning telur.


Adanya beberapa perubahan yang dapat terjadi selama penyimpanan, maka beberapa hal yang dianjurkan antara lain:

* Menyimpan telur sebaiknya di dalam almari pendingin. Daya simpan telur di suhu ruang adalah 8 hari sedangkan di dalam kulkas bisa bertahan hingga 3 minggu. Setelah ini, kualitas telur akan menurun.
* Walaupun isi telur tersimpan di dalam cangkang, pori-pori kulit telur tetap bisa menyerap aroma dari luar. Karenanya, simpan telur tidak berdekatan dengan bahan pangan berbau tajam, seperti ikan, durian dan terasi.
* Simpan telur di dalam rak dan balik setiap 2 hari sekali. Ini untuk menjaga kualitas telur tetap baik dan kuning telur tetap di tengah.

Tips Mudah Menjaga Hidrasi Tubuh

Sekitar 70% tubuh kita terdiri dari air, bahkan kinerja setiap sel dalam tubuh tergantung pada air untuk menjalankan fungsinya. Secara umum, air merupakan komponen penting untuk menghantarkan zat-zat yang berguna bagi tubuh. Oleh karena itu keseimbangan cairan dalam tubuh sangat berperan penting bagi kesehatan tubuh kita sehari-hari.
Begitu pentingnya air bagi tubuh, kita perlu mengganti hilangnya cairan tubuh sesering mungkin. Namun aktivitas sehari-hari yang padat kadang-kadang membuat kita lupa untuk terus menjaga hidrasi tubuh. Berikut beberapa tips sederhana agar Anda bisa terhidrasi dengan baik setiap hari:

• Simpanlah botol air minum praktis di dalam mobil Anda, di meja kerja Anda atau di tas olahraga Anda.
• Minumlah air putih selama berolahraga bahkan saat Anda tidak haus.
• Saat melakukan olahraga bersama atau olahraga di luar ruangan, bawalah sebotol air putih untuk menemani aktivitas Anda dan tentukan jadwal untuk istirahat dan minum air.
• Minumlah beberapa gelas setelah berolahraga untuk menggantikan air yang hilang dan menjaga keseimbangan cairan tubuh. 
• Minumlah lebih banyak air putih saat suhu udara terasa panas atau Anda berkeringat.

Untuk mengetahui apakah Anda sudah terhidrasi dengan baik, coba periksa urin Anda. Perhatikan warnanya! Seharusnya berwarna kuning cerah. Jika warnanya pekat atau mengeluarkan aroma yang kuat, Anda mungkin mengalami dehidrasi. Apabila hal ini terjadi, segera ambil langkah-langkah untuk menghidrasi tubuh Anda, yaitu dengan minum lebih banyak air dan melakukan beberapa tips di atas. Namun perhatikan juga apabila Anda mengkonsumsi obat-obatan tertentu, karena kondisi dan terkadang jenis makanan dapat mempengaruhi warna dan bau urin. Saat ini telah tersedia kartu PURI (Periksa Urin Sendiri) yang telah disahkan oleh PDGMI (Perhimpunan Dokter Gizi Medik Indonesia). Kartu PURI memuat warna-warna urin yang menunjukkan tingkat hidrasi seseorang. Saat buang air kecil, Anda dapat mencocokkan warna urin anda dan mengetahui apakah anda sudah terhidrasi dengan baik atau belum. Untuk wanita urin ditampung di wadah bening, untuk pria dapat langsung dilihat warna aliran urinnya.

teman teman semua pasti sudah dengar tentang GPRS. Nah, apakah kalian tahu arti GPRS ??
ayo kita pelajari tentang GPRS dan contoh contohnya di http://whijiilesstharii.blogspot.com/

Apa sih GPRS itu??

GPRS singkatan dari General Packet Radio Service
Yang dimaksud dengan GPRS adalah sebuah standar untuk berkomunikasi nirkabel [tanpa kabel,,seperti hp] dengan kecepatan sampai 115 kilobite per detik [115.000 bite per detik], dibandingkan dengan GSM [Global System for Mobile Communications] yang hanya berkecepatan 9.6 sistem kilobite,, wah jauh banget yaa.
Gprs itu didukung oleh berbagai bandwidth .
GPRS itu cocok buat penggunaan efisien bandwidth terbatas[artinya penggunaannya cocok buat yang cuma internetan sebentar] dan sangat cocok untuk mengirim dan menerima semburan kecil data,seperti e-mail dan browsing Web, selain data data yang kecil cocok juga kok buat data yang volumenya besar.

Nah ini ada salah satu contoh suatu layanan gprs dan cara mengaktifkannya di hp anda

GPRS
Pelanggan yang ponselnya mendukung layanan OTA (Over The Air) dapat melakukan aktivasi layanan GPRS melalui setting OTA sebagai berikut :
Ketik GPRS Kirim ke 9667.
contoh  : GPRS NOKIA 6120.
PIN OTA : 1111, Biaya Rp.350,-/SMS.
Pengguna akan menerima balasan SMS berisi setting parameter. Proses di atas juga akan mengaktifkan GPRS secara otomatis.
Jenis ponsel yang mendukung layanan OTA adalah Nokia, Sony Ericsson, Siemens, Motorola, Samsung dan LG. .
GPRS Manual Parameter.
Connection Name : XL-GPRS.
Data Bearer : GPRS.
Access Point Name : www.xlgprs.net.
Username : xlgprs.
Prompt Password : No.
Password : proxl.
Authentication : Normal.
Homepage : http://wap.xl.co.id.
Connection Security : Off.
Session Mode : Permanent.
IP Address : Automatic.
Proxy Server Address : 202.152.240.050.
Proxy Port Number : 8080.

PiL

[bahasa latin = PILULAE]

A.pengertian

Menurut F.I III ….. ^_^

Pilulae ialah sediaan dengan bentuk bulat yang mengandung satu atau lebih bahan obat.

ada 2 jenis pil,, [juga menurut F.I III] …!?,>’.’@

Boli ialah pil yang beratnya lebih dari 300 mg {berat bias 450mg, 500 mg, dsb},, pembuatan sama seperti pil.

Granula ialah pil kecil yang beratnya tidak lebih [kurang dari] dari 30 mg, mengandung 1 mg bahan obat.

B. komponen, peggunaan dan cotoh pilulae

Zat utama                               :berupa bahan obat [zat sangat penting di dalam pil]

Zat tambahan, ada beberapa macam….

·         Zat pengisi                 : untuk memperbesar volume pil. Karena kalau hanya dengan zat aktifnya saja, pil akan bervolume kecil. Contoh : akar manis, bolus alba, atau bahan bahan lain yang cocok.

·         Zat pengikat               : melekatkan massa(bahan) yang satu dengan yang lain. Contoh sari akar manis, gom akasia, tragacanth, atau bahan pengikat lain yang cocok.

·         Zat penabur               : membuat pil pil yang sudah terbentuk tidak melekat satu sama lain. Contoh :             Iyocopodium atau talk, atau bahan lain yang cocok.

·         Zat penyalut               : Zat penyalut ini digunakan karena ada beberapa alasan yaitu :

1.    untuk menutup rasa dan bau yang kurang enak…

2.    mencegah perubahan karena pengaruh udara [kestabilan]…

3.    supaya pil pecah dalam usus [enteric coated pil]

                                                Contoh zat penyalut seperti perak, balsam tolu, keratin, sirlak, kolodium, alol, gelatin,gula, bahan lainnya yang cocok.

·         Zat pembasah      : zat ini ditambahkan dalam suatu pil agar membasahi massa pil sebelum pil tersebut dibentuk [mempermudah dalam pembetukan pil]. Contoh pembasah pil : air, glierol, sirup, madu, atau campuran bahan tersebut [ air, sirup, gliserol, gula], dapat juga bahan lain yang cocok.

C. Persyaratan Pil

ada beberapa hal yang menjadi syarat pil yang baik, yaitu…

J       Memenuhi syarat waktu hancur yang tercantum pada compressi [FI edisi III]

J       Berat pil sesuai dengan keseragaman bobot [FI edisi III]

J      Waktu penyimpanan pil, bentuk pil harus tetap[ tidak terlalu keras shg,, dapat hancur di pencernaan]

D.Pembuatan sediaan pil

Prinsip Pembuatan Pil …

@        campur bahan bahan sediaan pil

@        tambah zat tambahan [pengisi, pengikat, penabur, penyalut[

@        setelah homogen…tetesi bahan pembasah [air, madu, sirup dll]

@        kemudian dengan cara menekan bahan samapi diperoleh  pil yang elastis

@        lalu dibuat bentuk batang

@        dipotong dengan alat pemotong pil sesuai dengan jumlah pil  yang diperlukan

@        setelah pil terbentuk tambahkan bahan pelicin agar pil yang jadi tidak melekat pada alat pembuat pil

SELESAI…

SUMBER dari buku “ILMU RESEP” SMK Farmasi :D

Wrapping capsule Drugs We

Consumer medicine in Indonesia is not helpless. Until this moment, they still do not have the option of drinking the drug in capsule form, although most Muslims know that there is a possibility because the capsule is not kosher gelatin made from pigs.Situation of Muslims in Indonesia dilemma. On the one hand, they want to recover.But on the other hand they are dealing with goods subhat.

Capsule is the best alternative in the pharmaceutical world. Small tube-shaped shells of this software is to protect consumers from drugs that extreme taste and aroma.Capsules also protect patients from drugs that are too acidic. That's because the new capsules will be destroyed in the intestine and not the stomach. Patients with gastric disorders will be safe.
That is why the capsule is still widely used to package drugs. Capsules are used due to practicality for the convenience of drug consumers. Generally, the drug has the feeling of not feeling like a bitter, rancid, sweet, and smell. Drugs are also various kinds began to powder, liquid or solid form. In the liquid type of drug, currently manufacturers add flavor or taste to it, especially if it is for kids. Drugs for children are usually orange or strawberry flavorings added.
Several efforts to freshen up the drug consumer is still not optimal. Nothing has been as effective as capsules. Capsule shell can accommodate various forms of the drug began to flour or powder, granule, paste, liquid, and semi-solid which when packaged in the normal way requires different handling.
The solid material can be hardened into tablets. While the liquid material should be packed separately in different vials and again for this type of pasta that have to use the tube. Not to mention that if one drug is a mixture of several different materials.
With the capsule, all can be resolved any form. That is enough to take a one-time process for a variety of drugs. Quite simple and practical. These conditions favor the drug manufacturer.
The capsule also has other advantages. The packing of the drug in capsule becomes easier. Capsule shell wraps the medicine in it. With so further handling easier and more hygienic. On the other hand facilitate the staining of the capsule shell manufacturer or party associated with the drug mengenalil differences in medicines.Color configuration on the capsule shell can be more.
Shell capsules made of gelatin or other gel-forming. Gelatin is produced from the skin and bones of pigs and cows. Capsule shape can be distinguished from hard (hard) and soft (soft). Commonly used in Indonesia is a hard capsule made from gelatin and dyes, preservatives and pelentur. In this country, the circulation of gelatin capsules made from pig and cow nearly as much. Because it was still possible to obtain halal capsules.
Is it difficult to obtain capsules halal?
"Actually no," said Nur Wahid, one of the staff at Research Institute of Food, Drugs and Cosmetics the Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI LPPOM). In Indonesia also circulating gel capsules are safe to eat because it is made from cow's gelatin. This product was originally created the company from the United States to meet demand from Malaysia's halal capsules. The price is relatively higher following the gelatinous beef products whose prices are still more expensive than pig gelatin.
But the existence of this kosher capsule is an alternative for consumers of drugs in Indonesia. They can choose gelatin capsules made from cow or a lawful despite higher prices. "Just ask the pharmacists, they will understand," said Nur Wahid.
However this does not mean the problem is simple capsule. He describes the examination process kosher capsule becomes complicated when associated with drugs in it. "We also need to be aware of its contents," she said.
Capsule shell is very small for halal label. This is not the most difficult because the most complicated precisely determine the halal capsules or drug content of the wrapped capsules. "That means there should be two times the examination," said alumnus Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB) that.
Capsule shell problem, he said, involves two parties such as manufacturers of capsules and drug manufacturers. Both manufacturers are usually a different company altogether. While the halal label imprinted on the capsule could not guarantee it kosher. Meanwhile, without labels, capsules halal can not be distinguished with other capsules.
IPB currently still researching the use of starch and cellulose to substitute for gelatin.IPB developing the production of cellulose from nata de coco. It's just not clear is how far, their research.
Most experts still classifies the capsule in an emergency. That's because the capsule is classified as a drug. Consequently, the capsule may be consumed. But if you want to be careful, there are several steps that can be taken to overcome them are: ask for a prescription drug that is not packaged in capsule form. When the capsule is the only alternative, not a capsule shell and then eat it by mixing the banana.
Taste bitter, bitter or rancid posed by drugs is still better than subhat goods entering into the body. When possible, ask the pharmacist whether the capsules are halal or not, if there are capsules halal ask for it. Without clear information, leave the capsule.(TID)

BALI

Bali is an Indonesian island located in the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, lying between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. It is one of the country's 33 provinces with the provincial capital at Denpasar towards the south of the island.

With a population recorded as 3,891,000 in 2010,^[2] the island is home to most of Indonesia's small Hindu minority. In the 2000 census about 92.29% of Bali's population adhered to Balinese Hinduism while most of the remainder follow Islam. It is also the largest tourist destination in the country and is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. Bali, despite being a tourist haven for decades, has seen a surge in tourist numbers in recent years.

History

Main article: History of Bali

Bali was inhabited by about 2000 BC by Austronesian peoples who migrated originally from Taiwan through Maritime Southeast Asia.^[3] Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are thus closely related to the peoples of the Indonesian archipelago, the Philippines, and Oceania.^[4] Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the island's west.^[5]

In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora and Ganapatya. Each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead.^[6]

Balinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian and Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture, beginning around the 1st century AD. The name Bali dwipa ("Bali island") has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD and mentioning "Walidwipa". It was during this time that the complex irrigation system subak was developed to grow rice. Some religious and cultural traditions still in existence today can be traced back to this period. The Hindu Majapahit Empire (1293–1520 AD) on eastern Java founded a Balinese colony in 1343. When the empire declined, there was an exodus of intellectuals, artists, priests, and musicians from Java to Bali in the 15th century.

Tanah Lot, one of the major temples in Bali

The first European contact with Bali is thought to have been made in 1585 when a Portuguese ship foundered off the Bukit Peninsula and left a few Portuguese in the service of Dewa Agung.^[7] In 1597 the Dutch explorer Cornelis de Houtman arrived at Bali and, with the establishment of the Dutch East India Company in 1602, the stage was set for colonial control two and a half centuries later when Dutch control expanded across the Indonesian archipelago throughout the second half of the nineteenth century (see Dutch East Indies). Dutch political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast, when the Dutch pitted various distrustful Balinese realms against each other.^[8] In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms in the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control.

The Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 and were met by the thousands of members of the royal family and their followers who fought against the superior Dutch force in a suicidal puputan defensive assault rather than face the humiliation of surrender.^[8] Despite Dutch demands for surrender, an estimated 1,000 Balinese marched to their death against the invaders.^[9] In the Dutch intervention in Bali (1908), a similar massacre occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung. Afterwards the Dutch governors were able to exercise administrative control over the island, but local control over religion and culture generally remained intact. Dutch rule over Bali came later and was never as well established as in other parts of Indonesia such as Java and Maluku.

In the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, and artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin McPhee created a western image of Bali as "an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature", and western tourism first developed on the island.^[10]

Balinese dancers show for tourists, Ubud.

Imperial Japan occupied Bali during World War II, during which time a Balinese military officer, Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'. The lack of institutional changes from the time of Dutch rule however, and the harshness of war requisitions made Japanese rule little better than the Dutch one.^[11] Following Japan's Pacific surrender in August 1945, the Dutch promptly returned to Indonesia, including Bali, immediately to reinstate their pre-war colonial administration. This was resisted by the Balinese rebels now using Japanese weapons. On 20 November 1946, the Battle of Marga was fought in Tabanan in central Bali. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai, by then 29 years old, finally rallied his forces in east Bali at Marga Rana, where they made a suicide attack on the heavily armed Dutch. The Balinese battalion was entirely wiped out, breaking the last thread of Balinese military resistance. In 1946 the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed State of East Indonesia, a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia which was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta. Bali was included in the "Republic of the United States of Indonesia" when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949.

The 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc and forced many displaced Balinese to be transmigrated to other parts of Indonesia. Mirroring the widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system, and those rejecting these traditional values. Politically, this was represented by opposing supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programs.^[8] An attempted coup in Jakarta was put down by forces led by General Suharto. The army became the dominant power as it instigated a violent anti-communist purge, in which the army blamed the PKI for the coup. Most estimates suggest that at least 500,000 people were killed across Indonesia, with an estimated 80,000 killed in Bali, equivalent to 5% of the island's population.^[12] With no Islamic forces involved as in Java and Sumatra, upper-caste PNI landlords led the extermination of PKI members.^[13]

As a result of the 1965/66 upheavals, Suharto was able to manoeuvre Sukarno out of the presidency, and his "New Order" government reestablished relations with western countries. The pre-War Bali as "paradise" was revived in a modern form, and the resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for the country.^[8] A bombing in 2002 by militant Islamists in the tourist area of Kuta killed 202 people, mostly foreigners. This attack, and another in 2005, severely affected tourism, bringing much economic hardship to the island. Tourist numbers have now returned to levels before the bombings.

[edit]Geography

See also: List of bodies of water in Bali and List of mountains in Bali

Topography of the island

The island of Bali lies 3.2 km (2 mi) east of Java, and is approximately 8 degrees south of the equator. Bali and Java are separated by the Bali Strait. East to west, the island is approximately 153 km (95 mi) wide and spans approximately 112 km (69 mi) north to south; its land area is 5,632 km².

Bali's central mountains include several peaks over 3,000 metres in elevation. The highest is Mount Agung (3,142 m), known as the "mother mountain" which is an activevolcano. Mountains range from centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak. Bali's volcanic nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges provide the high rainfall that supports the highly productive agriculture sector. South of the mountains is a broad steadily descending area where most of Bali's large rice crop is grown. The northern side of the mountains slopes more steeply to the sea and is the main coffee producing area of the island, along with rice, vegetables and cattle. The longest river, Ayung River, flows approximately 75 km.

The island is surrounded by coral reefs. Beaches in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand. Bali has no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small sampan boats. Black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are being developed for tourism, but apart from the seaside temple of Tanah Lot, they are not yet used for significant tourism.

The largest city is the provincial capital, Denpasar, near the southern coast. Its population is around 491,500(2002). Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital,Singaraja, which is located on the north coast and is home to around 100,000 people. Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta, which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area; and Ubud, which is north of Denpasar, and is known as the island's cultural centre.

Three small islands lie to the immediate south east and all are administratively part of the Klungkung regency of Bali: Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan. These islands are separated from Bali by the Badung Strait.

To the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan ecozone and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia. The transition is known as the Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes. When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated.

[edit]Ecology

The Bali Starling is found only on Bali and is critically endangered.

Bali lies just to the west of the Wallace Line, and thus has a fauna which is Asian in character, with very little Australasian influence, and has more in common with Java than with Lombok. An exception is the Yellow-crested Cockatoo, a member of a primarily Australasian family. There are around 280 species of birds, including the critically endangered Bali Starling, which is endemic. Others Include Barn Swallow, Black-naped Oriole, Black Racket-tailed Treepie, Crested Serpent-eagle, Crested Treeswift, Dollarbird, Java Sparrow,Lesser Adjutant, Long-tailed Shrike, Milky Stork, Pacific Swallow, Red-rumped Swallow, Sacred Kingfisher, Sea Eagle, Woodswallow, Savanna Nightjar, Stork-billed Kingfisher,Yellow-vented Bulbul, White Heron, Great Egret.

Until the early 20th century, Bali was home to several large mammals: the wild Banteng, Leopard and an endemic subspecies of Tiger, the Bali Tiger. The Banteng still occurs in its domestic form, while leopards are found only in neighboring Java, and the Bali Tiger is extinct. The last definite record of a Tiger on Bali dates from 1937, when one was shot, though the subspecies may have survived until the 1940s or 1950s.^[14] The relatively small size of the island, conflict with humans, poaching and habitat reduction drove the Tiger to extinction. This was the smallest and rarest of all Tiger subspecies and was never caught on film or displayed in zoos, while few skins or bones remain in museums around the world. Today, the largest mammals are the Javan Rusa deer and the Wild Boar. A second, smaller species of deer, the Indian Muntjac, also occurs.

Monkey Forest, Ubud.

Squirrels are quite commonly encountered, less often the Asian Palm Civet, which is also kept in coffee farms to produce Kopi Luwak. Bats are well represented, perhaps the most famous place to encounter them remaining the Goa Lawah (Temple of the Bats) where they are worshipped by the locals and also constitute a tourist attraction. They also occur in other cave temples, for instance at Gangga Beach. Two species of monkey occur. The Crab-eating Macaque, known locally as “kera”, is quite common around human settlements and temples, where it becomes accustomed to being fed by humans, particularly in any of the three “monkey forest” temples, such as the popular one in the Ubudarea. They are also quite often kept as pets by locals. The second monkey, far rarer and more elusive is the Silver Leaf Monkey known locally as “lutung”. They occur in few places apart from the Bali Barat National Park. Other, rarer mammals include the Leopard Cat, Sunda Pangolin and Black Giant Squirrel.

Snakes include the King Cobra and Reticulated Python. The Water Monitor can grow to an impressive size and move surprisingly quickly.

The rich coral reefs around the coast, particularly around popular diving spots such as Tulamben, Amed, Menjangan or neighboring Nusa Penida, host a wide range of marine life, for instance Hawksbill Turtle, Giant Sunfish, Giant Manta Ray, Giant Moray Eel, Bumphead Parrotfish, Hammerhead Shark, Reef Shark, barracuda, and sea snakes. Dolphins are commonly encountered on the north coast near Singaraja and Lovina.

Many plants have been introduced by humans within the last centuries, particularly since the 20th century, making it sometimes hard to distinguish what plants are really native. Among the larger trees the most common are: Banyan trees, Jackfruit, coconuts, bamboo species, acacia trees and also endless rows of coconuts and bananaspecies. Numerous flowers can be seen: hibiscus, frangipani, bougainvillea, poinsettia, oleander, jasmine, water lily, lotus, roses, begonias, orchids and hydrangeas exist. On higher grounds that receive more moisture, for instance around Kintamani, certain species of fern trees, mushrooms and even pine trees thrive well. Rice comes in many varieties. Other plants with agricultural value include: salak, mangosteen, corn, Kintamani orange, coffee and water spinach.

A team of scientists has conducted survey from April 29, 2011 to May 11, 2011 at 33 sea site of Bali. They have discovered 952 species of reef fish which 8 of them were new discoveries at Pemuteran,Gilimanuk, Nusa Dua, Tulamben and Candidasa and 393 coral species, including two new ones at Padangbai and between Padangbai and Amed.^[15]

Agriculture

Tegalalang rice terrace in Ubud

Although tourism produces the GDP's largest output, agriculture is still the island’s biggest employer;^{[18][citation needed]} most notably rice cultivation. Crops grown in smaller amounts include fruit, vegetables, Coffea arabica and other cash and subsistence crops.^{[citation needed]} Fishing also provides a significant number of jobs. Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce a vast array of handicrafts, including batik and ikat cloth and clothing, wooden carvings, stone carvings, painted art and silverware. Notably, individual villages typically adopt a single product, such as wind chimes or wooden furniture.

The Arabica coffee production region is the highland region of Kintamani near Mount Batur. Generally, Balinese coffee is processed using the wet method. This results in a sweet, soft coffee with good consistency. Typical flavors include lemon and other citrus notes.^[19] Many coffee farmers in Kintamani are members of a traditional farming system called Subak Abian, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of "Tri Hita Karana”. According to this philosophy, the three causes of happiness are good relations with God, other people and the environment. The Subak Abian system is ideally suited to the production of fair trade and organic coffee production. Arabica coffee from Kintamani is the first product in Indonesia to request a Geographical Indication.^[20]

[edit]Tourism

The Tirtha Empul Temple draws a fair share of tourists who seek its holy waters

Pura Taman Ayun, another temple which is a popular tourist destination

The tourism industry is primarily focused in the south, while significant in the other parts of the island as well. The main tourist locations are the town of Kuta (with its beach), and its outer suburbs of Legian and Seminyak (which were once independent townships), the east coast town of Sanur (once the only tourist hub), in the center of the island Ubud, to the south of the Ngurah Rai International Airport, Jimbaran, and the newer development of Nusa Dua and Pecatu.

The American government lifted its travel warnings in 2008. As of 2009, the Australian government still rates it at a 4 danger level (the same as several countries incentral Africa) on a scale of 5.

An offshoot of tourism is the growing real estate industry. Bali real estate has been rapidly developing in the main tourist areas of Kuta, Legian, Seminyak and Oberoi. Most recently, high-end 5 star projects are under development on the Bukit peninsula, on the south side of the island. Million dollar villas are being developed along the cliff sides of south Bali, commanding panoramic ocean views. Foreign and domestic (many Jakarta individuals and companies are fairly active) investment into other areas of the island also continues to grow. Land prices, despite the worldwide economic crisis, have remained stable.

In the last half of 2008, Indonesia's currency had dropped approximately 30% against the US dollar, providing many overseas visitors value for their currencies. Visitor arrivals for 2009 were forecast to drop 8% (which would be higher than 2007 levels), due to the worldwide economic crisis which has also affected the global tourist industry, but not due to any travel warnings.

Bali's tourism economy survived the terrorist bombings of 2002 and 2005, and the tourism industry has in fact slowly recovered and surpassed its pre-terrorist bombing levels; the longterm trend has been a steady increase of visitor arrivals. At 2010, Bali received 2.57 million foreign tourists. It is surpassed the target of 2.0-2.3 million tourists. The average occupancy of starred hotels achieved 65 percent (last year 60.8 percent), so still capable for accommodates tourists for next some years without any addition of new rooms/hotels,^[21] although at the peak season some of them are fully booked.

Bali received the Best Island award from Travel and Leisure in 2010. The award was presented in the show "World's Best Awards 2010" in New York, on 21 July. Hotel Four Seasons Resort Bali at Jimbaran also received an award in the category of "World Best Hotel Spas in Asia 2010". The award was based on a survey of travel magazine Travel + Leisure readers between 15 December 2009 through 31 March 2010, and was judged on several criteria. The Ayana Resort received the designation; #1 Spa in the world by Conde Naste's Traveller Magazine for 2010 by their readers poll . The island of Bali won because of its attractive surroundings (both mountain and coastal areas), diverse tourist attractions, excellent international and local restaurants, and the friendliness of the local people.

[edit]Transportation

A major form of transport in Bali is theMoped

The Ngurah Rai International Airport is located near Jimbaran, on the isthmus at the southernmost part of the island. Lt.Col. Wisnu Airfield is found in north-west Bali.

A coastal road surrounds the island, and three major two-lane arteries cross the central mountains at passes reaching to 1,750m in height (at Penelokan). The Ngurah Rai Bypass is a four-lane expressway that partly encircles Denpasar and enables cars to travel quickly in the heavily populated south. Bali has no railway lines.

December 2010: Government of Indonesia has invited investors to build Tanah Ampo Cruise Terminal at Karangasem, Bali amounted $30 million.^[22]

A Memorandum of Understanding has been signed by 2 ministers, Bali's Governor and Indonesian Train Company to build 565 kilometers railway along the coast around the island. It will be operated from 2015 onwards.^[23]

A 11.4 kilometers Serangan-Tanjung Benoa toll road will be built since mid-2011 by Jasamarga.^[24] On March 16, 2011 (Tanjung) Benoa port has received a "Best Port Welcome 2010" award from London's "Dream World Cruise Destination" magazine.^[25]

On May 2011, an integrated Areal Traffic control System (ATCS) with monitoring in Head Quarter will be implemented to reduce traffic jams in 4 crossing points, i.e.: Ngurah Rai statue, Dewa Ruci Kuta crossing, Jimbaran crossing and Sanur crossing. ATCS has successfully implemented at other ASEAN countries and will be implemented at other crossing in Bali.^[26]

[edit]Demographics

The population of Bali is 3,151,000 (as of 2005). There are an estimated 30,000 expatriates living in Bali.^[27]

[edit]Religion

The Mother Temple of Besakih, one of Bali's most significant Hindu temples.

A religious procession

Unlike most of Muslim-majority Indonesia, about 93.18% of Bali's population adheres to Balinese Hinduism, formed as a combination of existing local beliefs and Hinduinfluences from mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. Minority religions include Islam (4.79%), Christianity (1.38%), and Buddhism (0.64%). These figures do not include immigrants from other parts of Indonesia.

When Islam surpassed Hinduism in Java (16th century), Bali became a refuge for many Hindus. Balinese Hinduism is an amalgam in which gods and demigods are worshipped together with Buddhist heroes, the spirits of ancestors, indigenous agricultural deities and sacred places. Religion as it is practiced in Bali is a composite belief system that embraces not only theology, philosophy, and mythology, but ancestor worship, animism and magic. It pervades nearly every aspect of traditional life.Caste is observed, though less strictly than in India. With an estimated 20,000 puras (temples) and shrines, Bali is known as the "Island of a Thousand Puras", or "Island of the Gods".^[28]

Balinese Hinduism has roots in Indian Hinduism and in Buddhism, and adopted the animistic traditions of the indigenous people. This influence strengthened the belief that the gods and goddesses are present in all things. Every element of nature, therefore, possesses its own power, which reflects the power of the gods. A rock, tree, dagger, or woven cloth is a potential home for spirits whose energy can be directed for good or evil. Balinese Hinduism is deeply interwoven with art and ritual. Ritualizing states of self-control are a notable feature of religious expression among the people, who for this reason have become famous for their graceful and decorous behavior.^[29]

Apart from the majority of Balinese Hindus, there also exist Chinese immigrants whose traditions have melded with that of the locals. As a result, these Sino-Balinese not only embrace their original religion, which is a mixture of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism, but also find a way to harmonize it with the local traditions. Hence, it is not uncommon to find local Sino-Balinese during the local temple's odalan. Moreover, Balinese Hindu priests are invited to perform rites alongside a Chinese priest in the event of the death of a Sino-Balinese.^[30] Nevertheless, the Sino-Balinese claim to embrace Buddhism for administrative purposes, such as their Identity Cards.^[31]

[edit]Language

Balinese and Indonesian are the most widely spoken languages in Bali, and the vast majority of Balinese people are bilingual or trilingual. There are several indigenous Balinese languages, but most Balinese can also use the most widely spoken option: modern common Balinese. The usage of different Balinese languages was traditionally determined by the Balinese caste system and by clan membership, but this tradition is diminishing.

English is a common third language (and the primary foreign language) of many Balinese, owing to the requirements of the tourism industry.

[edit]Culture

Main articles: Music of Bali and Balinese art

The famous dancer i Mario, picture taken 1940.

Bali is renowned for its diverse and sophisticated art forms, such as painting, sculpture, woodcarving, handcrafts, and performing arts. Balinese percussion orchestra music, known as gamelan, is highly developed and varied. Balinese performing arts often portray stories from Hindu epics such as the Ramayana but with heavy Balinese influence. Famous Balinese dances include pendet, legong, baris, topeng, barong, gong keybar, and kecak (the monkey dance). Bali boasts one of the most diverse and innovative performing arts cultures in the world, with paid performances at thousands of temple festivals, private ceremonies, or public shows.^[32]

The Hindu New Year, Nyepi, is celebrated in the spring by a day of silence. On this day everyone stays at home and tourists are encouraged to remain in their hotels. But the day before that large, colourful sculptures of ogoh-ogoh monsters are paraded and finally burned in the evening to drive away evil spirits. Other festivals throughout the year are specified by the Balinese pawukon calendrical system.

Balinese dancers wearing elaborate headgear, photographed in 1929. Digitally restored.

Celebrations are held for many occasions such as a tooth-filing (coming-of-age ritual), cremation or odalan (temple festival). One of the most important concepts that Balinese ceremonies have in common is that of désa kala patra, which refers to how ritual performances must be appropriate in both the specific and general social context.^[33] Many of the ceremonial art forms such as wayang kulit and topeng are highly improvisatory, providing flexibility for the performer to adapt the performance to the current situation.^[34] Many celebrations call for a loud, boisterous atmosphere with lots of activity and the resulting aesthetic, ramé, is distinctively Balinese. Oftentimes two or more gamelan ensembles will be performing well within earshot, and sometimes compete with each other in order to be heard. Likewise, the audience members talk amongst themselves, get up and walk around, or even cheer on the performance, which adds to the many layers of activity and the liveliness typical oframé.^[35]

Stone carvings in Ubud.

Kaja and kelod are the Balinese equivalents of North and South, which refer to ones orientation between the island’s largest mountain Gunung Agung (kaja), and the sea (kelod). In addition to spatial orientation, kaja and kelod have the connotation of good and evil; gods and ancestors are believed to live on the mountain whereas demons live in the sea. Buildings such as temples and residential homes are spatially oriented by having the most sacred spaces closest to the mountain and the unclean places nearest to the sea.^[36]

Most temples have an inner courtyard and an outer courtyard which are arranged with the inner courtyard furthest kaja. These spaces serve as performance venues since most Balinese rituals are accompanied by any combination of music, dance and drama. The performances that take place in the inner courtyard are classified as wali, the most sacred rituals which are offerings exclusively for the gods, while the outer courtyard is where bebali ceremonies are held, which are intended for gods and people. Lastly, performances meant solely for the entertainment of humans take place outside the walls of the temple and are called bali-balihan. This three-tiered system of classification was standardized in 1971 by a committee of Balinese officials and artists in order to better protect the sanctity of the oldest and most sacred Balinese rituals from being performed for a paying audience.^[37]

Tourism, Bali’s chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers. The impact of tourism is controversial since before it became integrated into the economy, the Balinese performing arts did not exist as a capitalist venture, and were not performed for entertainment outside of their respective ritual context. Since the 1930s sacred rituals such as the barong dance have been performed both in their original contexts, as well as exclusively for paying tourists. This has led to new versions of many of these performances which have developed according to the preferences of foreign audiences; some villages have a barong mask specifically for non-ritual performances as well as an older mask which is only used for sacred performances.^[38]

Balinese society continues to revolve around each family's ancestral village, to which the cycle of life and religion is closely tied.^[39] Coercive aspects of traditional society, such as customary law sanctions imposed by traditional authorities such as village councils (including "kasepekang", or shunning) have risen in importance as a consequence of the democratization and decentralization of Indonesia since 1998.^[39]